Fig. 4

Workbench 2, a rigid pipe with constant flow and different 3D-printed heart valves to simulate aortic valve stenosis (AS). A The valve geometries considered—tricuspid aortic valve (TAV), two different configurations of bicuspid aortic valves (BAV1 and BAV2), two circular valves with different diameters (Circ 1 and Circ2), and two malfunctioning prosthetic heart valves (PHV1 and PHV2) [29]. B The respective cross-sectional blood flow profile at vena contracta (VC) cross-plane. C The respective streamlines distal from the valve